hypothetical parent language to account for striking similarities among the various languages of Europe and the Near East。 These languages； scholars concluded； belonged to an Indo…European language family。 Experts on mythology likewise searched for a parent mythology that presumably stood behind the mythologies of all the European peoples。 （42） 。 For example； an expression like “maiden dawn” for “sunrise” resulted first in personification of the dawn； and then in myths about her。
Later in the 19th century the theory of evolution put forward by English naturalist Charles Darwin heavily influenced the study of mythology。 Scholars researched on the history of mythology； much as they would dig fossil…bearing geological formations； for remains from the distant past。 （43） 。 Similarly； British anthropologist Sir James George Frazer proposed a three…stage evolutionary scheme in The Golden Bough。 According to Frazer’s scheme； human beings first attributed natural phenomena to arbitrary supernatural forces （ magic）； later explaining them as the will of the gods （religion）； and finally subjecting them to rational investigation （science）。
The research of British scholar William Robertson Smith； published in Lectures on the Religion of the Semites （1889）； also influenced Frazer。 Through Smith’s work； Frazer came to believe that many myths had their origin in the ritual practices of ancient agricultural peoples； for whom the annual cycles of vegetation were of central importance。 （44） 。 This approach reached its most extreme form in the so…called functionalism of British anthropologist A。 R。 Radcliffe…Brown； who held that every myth implies a ritual； and every ritual implies a myth。
Most analyses of myths in the 18th and 19th centuries showed a tendency to reduce myths to some essential core…whether the seasonal cycles of nature； historical circumstances； or ritual。 That core supposedly remained once the fanciful elements of the narratives had been stripped away。 In the 20th century； investigators began to pay closer attention to the content of the narratives themselves。 （45） 。
＇A＇ German…born British scholar Max Muller concluded that the Rig…Veda of ancient India — the oldest preserved body of literature written in an Indo…European language — reflected the earliest stages of an Indo…European mythology。 Muller attributed all later myths to misunderstandings that arose from the picturesque terms in which early peoples described natural phenomena。
＇B＇ The myth and ritual theory； as this approach came to be called； was developed most fully by British scholar Jan Ellen Harrison。 Using insight gained from the work of French sociologist Emile Durkheim； Harrison argued that all myths have their origin in collective rituals of a society。
＇C＇ Austrian psycho…analyst Sigmund Freud held that myths — like dreams — condense the material of experience and represent it in symbols。
＇D＇ This approach can be seen in the work of British anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor。 In Primitive Culture （1871）； Tylor organized the religious and philosophical development of humanity into separate and distinct evolutionary stages。
＇E＇ The studies made in this period were consolidated in the work of German scholar Christian Gottlob Heyne； who was the first scholar to use the Latin term myths （ instead of fabular ； meaning “fable”） to refer to the tales of heroes and gods。
＇F＇ German scholar Karl Offried Muller followed this line of inquiry in his Prolegomena to a Scientific Mythology； 1825。
Sample Two
Directions：The following paragraphs are given in a wrong order。 For Questions 41…45； you are required to reorganize these paragraphs into a coherent article by choosing from the list A…G to fill in each numbered box。 The first and the last paragraphs have been placed for you in Boxes。 Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1。 （10 points）
＇A＇ These issues cut right across traditional religious dogma。 Many people cling to the belief that the origin of life required a unique divine act。 But if life on Earth is not unique； the case for a miraculous origin would be undermined。 The discovery of even a humble bacterium on Mars； if it could be shown to have arisen independently from Earth life would support the view that life emerges naturally。
＇B＇ Contrary to popular belief； speculation that we are not alone in the universe is as old as philosophy itself。 The essential steps in the reasoning were based on the atomic theory of the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus。 First； the laws of nature are universal。 Second； there is nothing special or privileged about Earth。 Finally； if something is possible； nature tends to make it happen。 Philosophy is one thing； filling in the physical details is another。 Although astronomers increasingly suspect that bio…friendly planets may be abundant in the universe； the chemical steps leading to life remain largely mysterious。
＇C＇ There is； however； a contrary view — one that is gaining strength and directly challenges orthodox biology。 It is that complexity can emerge spontaneously through a process of selforganization。 If matter and energy have an inbuilt tendency to amplify and channel organized complexity； the odds against the formation of life and the subsequent evolution of intelligence could be drastically shortened。 The relevance of self…organization to biology remains hotly debated。 It suggests； however； that although the universe as a whole may be dying； an opposite； progressive trend may also exist as a fundamental property of nature。 The emergence of extraterrestrial life； particularly intelligent life； is a key test for these rival paradigms。
＇D＇ Similar reasoning applies to evolution。 According to the orthodox view； Darwinian selection is utterly blind。 Any impression that the transition from microbes to man represents progress is pure chauvinism of our part。 The path of evolution is merely a random walk through the realm of possibilities。 If this is right； there can be no directionality； no innate drive forward； in particular； no push toward consciousness and intelligence。 Should Earth be struck by an asteroid； destroying all higher life…forms； intelligent beings； still less humanoids； would almost certainly not arise next time around。
＇E＇ Traditionally； biologists believed that life is a freak — the result of a zillion…to…one accidental concatenation of molecules。 It follows that the likelihood of its happening again elsewhere in the cosmos is infinitesimal。 This viewpoint derives from the second law of thermodynamics； which predicts that the universe is dying…slowly and inexorably degenerating toward a state of total chaos。 Life stumbles across this trend only because it is a pure statistical luck。
＇F＇ Historically； the Roman Catholic church regarded any discussion of alien life as heresy。 Speculating about other inhabited worlds was one reason philosopher Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake in 1600。 Belief that mankind has a special relationship with God is central to the monotheistic religions。 The existence of