descriptions are for the most part limited to deeds； events； and states of society； which they had
before their eyes； and whose spirit they shared。 They simply transferred what was passing in the
world around them； to the realm of representative intellect。 An external phenomenon is thus
translated into an internal conception。 In the same way the poet operates upon the material
supplied him by his emotions； projecting it into an image for the conceptive faculty。 These original
historians did； it is true； find statements and narratives of other men ready to hand。 One person
cannot be an eye and ear witness of everything。 But they make use of such aids only as the poet
does of that heritage of an already…formed language； to which he owes so much； merely as an
ingredient。 Historiographers bind together the fleeting elements of story； and treasure them up for
immortality in the Temple of Mnemosyne。 Legends； Ballad…stories； Traditions must be excluded
from such original history。 These are but dim and hazy forms of historical apprehension； and
therefore belong to nations whose intelligence is but half awakened。 Here； on the contrary； we
have to do with people fully conscious of what they were and what they were about。 The domain
of reality — actually seen； or capable of being so — affords a very different basis in point of
firmness from that fugitive and shadowy element； in which were engendered those legends and
poetic dreams whose historical prestige vanishes； as soon as nations have attained a mature
individuality。
§ 2
Such original historians； then； change the events； the deeds and the states of society with which
they are conversant； into an object for the conceptive faculty。 The narratives they leave us cannot；
therefore； be very prehensive in their range。 Herodotus； Thucydides； Guieciardini； may be
taken as fair samples of the class in this respect。 What is present and living in their environment； is
their proper material。 The influences that have formed the writer are identical with those which
have moulded the events that constitute the matter of his story。 The author's spirit； and that of the
actions he narrates； is one and the same。 He describes scenes in which he himself has been an
actor； or at any rate an interested spectator。 It is short periods of time； individual shapes of
persons and occurrences； single unreflected traits； of which be makes his picture。 And his aim is
nothing more than the presentation to posterity of an image of events as clear as that which be
himself possessed in virtue of personal observation； or life…like descriptions。 Reflections are none
of his business； for he lives in the spirit of his subject； he has not attained an elevation above it。 If；
as in Caesar's case； he belongs to the exalted rank of generals or statesmen； it is the prosecution
of his own aims that constitutes the history。
§ 3
Such speeches as we find in Thucydides （for example） of which we can positively assert that they
are not bona fide reports； would seem to make against our statement that a historian of his class
presents us no reflected picture； that persons and people appear in his works in propria persona。
Speeches； it must be allowed； are veritable transactions in the human monwealth； in fact； very
gravely influential transactions。 It is； indeed； often said； 〃Such and such things are only talk〃； by
way of demonstrating their harmlessness。 That for which this excuse is brought； may be mere
〃talk〃； and talk enjoys the important privilege of being harmless。 But addresses of peoples to
peoples； or orations directed to nations and to princes； are integrant constituents of history。
Granted such orations as those of Pericles — the most profoundly acplished； genuine； noble
statesman — were elaborated by Thucydides； it must yet be maintained that they were not foreign
to the character of the speaker。 In the oration in question； these men proclaim the maxims adopted
by their countrymen； and which formed their own character； they record their views of their
political relations； and of their moral and spiritual nature； and the principle of their designs and
conduct。 What the historian puts into their mouths is no supposititious system of ideas； but an
uncorrupted transcript of their intellectual and moral habitudes。
§ 4
Of these historians； whom we must make thoroughly our own； with whom we must linger long； if
we would live with their respective nations； and enter deeply into their spirit： of these historians； to
whose pages we may turn not for the purpose of erudition merely； but with a view to deep and
genuine enjoyment； there are fewer than might be imagined。 Herodotus the Father； i。e。 the
Founder of History and Thucydides have been already mentioned。 Xenophon's Retreat of the
Ten Thousand is a work equally original。 Caesar's mentaries are the simple masterpiece of
a mighty spirit。 Among the ancients； these annalists were necessarily great captains and statesmen。
In the Middle Ages； if we except the Bishops； who were placed in the very centre of the political
world； the Monks monopolise this category as naive chroniclers who were as decidedly isolated
from active life as those elder annalists had been connected with it。 In modern times the relations
are entirely altered。 Our culture is essentially prehensive and immediately changes all events
into historical representations。 Belonging to the class in question； we have vivid； simple； clear
narrations — especially of military transactions — which might fairly take their place with those of
Caesar。 In richness of matter and fullness of detail as regards strategic appliances； and attendant
circumstances； they are even more instructive。 The French 〃Memoires〃 also fall under this
category。 In many cases these are written by men of mark； though relating to affairs of little note。
They not unfrequently contain a large proportion of anecdotal matter； so that the ground they
occupy is narrow and trivial。 Yet they are often veritable masterpieces in history； as those of
Cardinal Retz； which in fact trench on a larger historical field。 In Germany such masters are rare。
Frederick the Great （Histoire de mon temps） is an illustrious exception。 Writers of this order
must occupy an elevated position。 Only from such a position is it possible to take an extensive
view of affairs — to see everything。 This is out of the question for him； who from below merely
gets a glimpse of the great world through a miserable cranny。
II。 Reflective History
1。 Universal History … 2。 Pragmatical History … 3。 Critical History
§ 5
The second kind of history we may call the reflective。 It is history whose mode of representation
is not really confined by the limits of the time to which it relates； but whose spirit transcends the
present。 In this second order strongly marked variety of species may be distinguished。
1。 Universal History
§ 6
It is the aim of the investigator to gain